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Table of Contents Introduction 3 Self-directed learning resources 4 SDL resource #1: Entrepreneurship Education: A Guide for Educators 4 SDL resource #2: How to build confidence in your Online instruction 5 SDL resource #3: 7 Tips To Boost Self-Confidence In Online Training 8 SDL resource #4: Self-efficacy and self-esteem in online learning environments of adult learners 11 SDL resource #5: Applying Best Practice Online Learning, Teaching, and Support to Intensive Online Environments: An Integrative Review 12 Infographic-based self-directed learning 26 Training resources 27 2
Introduction Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes Self-directed learning helps you optimize your educational experience, allowing you to focus effort on useful information that you don't already posses and exposes you to information that you don't have access to through passive observation. In this case, guidelines (links) to external materials are available to everyone via the Internet, and which will be of great benefit to participants to further expand the knowledge they will primarily acquire through face-to-face learning. Apart from the link to the resource, the title of the resource, the time needed to master that resource and brief description of what it is about in that resource is given in each resource. In this way, you will be directed to useful materials, but also encouraged for self-directed learning, because on certain topics you will be able to continue to explore and build your skills. 3
Self-directed learning resources SDL resource #1: Entrepreneurship Education: A Guide for Educators Self-directed Learning Resource #1 Activity title Entrepreneurship Education: A Guide for Educators Duration 3 hour Why is this resource important? This guide aims to showcase a selection of examples of inspiring practice featured through the two events to a wider audience. It highlights the enablers and the success factors of the examples and provides contact details for more information. What will you learn from this resource? Entrepreneurship education is seen as more than preparation on how to create and run a business. It is about how to develop the entrepreneurial attitudes, skills and knowledge which, in short, should enable a student to ‘turn ideas into action’. The following is proposed in relation to teacher development. ● Teachers cannot teach how to be entrepreneurial without themselves being entrepreneurial. ● Entrepreneurial competencies require active methods of engaging students to release their creativity and innovation. ● Entrepreneurial competency and skills can be acquired or built only through hands-on, real life learning experiences. ● Entrepreneurial skills can be taught across all subjects as well as a separate subject. ● Entrepreneurship education should focus on ‘intrapreneurs’ as well as entrepreneurs, in light of the fact that most students will use entrepreneurial skills within companies or public institutions. To give entrepreneurship education real traction, there is a need to develop learning outcomes related to entrepreneurship, and related assessment methods and quality assurance procedures for all levels of education. These should be designed to help teachers progress in the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills and knowledge through partnership with business and the community. Sources & References The resource can be downloaded in PDF from the following link: Entrepreneurship Education: A Guide for Educators", EC 2013 4
SDL resource #2: How to build confidence in your Online instruction Self-directed Learning Resource #2 Activity title How to Build Confidence in Your Online Instruction Duration 1 hour Why is this resource important? This Recommendation seeks to establish a shared understanding of competences which can support transitions and cooperation between different learning settings. It sets out good practices that could address the needs of educational staff which includes teachers, trainers, teacher educators, leaders of education and training institutes, among others. It also addresses institutions and organisations, including social partners and civil society organisations, guiding and supporting people in improving their competences from early age on throughout their lives. What will you learn from this resource? Definition of the key competences and the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to: ● Literacy competence; ● Multilingual competence; ● Mathematical competence and competence in science, technology, engineering; ● Digital competence; ● Personal, social and learning to learn competence; ● Citizenship competence; ● Entrepreneurship competence; ● Cultural awareness and expression competence. Sources & References The original text was found in: https://www.graduateprogram.org/2021/01/how-to-build-confidence-in-y our-online-instruction/ How to Build Confidence in Your Online Instruction Last spring as many schools closed due to the emerging pandemic, a decade or more of educational change occurred overnight. Education is a slowly evolving field as educators have refined skills over years of experience and new teachers progress through the system and emulate their best teachers. These thoughts are logical, as change is difficult, and most educators would likely agree that in-person instruction is best for most students. On the contrary, many colleges and universities have embraced online learning for some time. While many pieces distinguish post-secondary learning from the PK-12 public sector, 5
increased studies and moving some instruction online prior to the pandemic would have been ideal. Adults who are motivated by career advancement are certainly different, but PK-12 teachers need to work to increase confidence in online instruction and find ways to refine this instruction so as to engage students to the maximum potential. Most colleges research and build coursework over at least a year prior to moving a program online. Unfortunately, school districts did not have this luxury, as the change was overnight. While online instruction was not available in many districts prior to the pandemic, this mode of instruction is certainly here to stay for at least a portion of the student population. In recent years, online PK-12 instruction had been largely the focus of a few online providers, both public and private. Some students are excelling in the online model and will likely want to continue in this mode of instruction. As membership correlates directly to funding, districts will either need to continue to serve this segment or could find themselves with drastic budget shortfalls. The districts in the best place with online instruction likely have experimented with the mode prior to the pandemic’s school closures. While degree of preparedness may vary, one thing is certain: teachers will be more confident as they begin online classes with a new group of learners next fall. Why is Some Teachers’ Confidence Decreasing? Change is difficult and can affect confidence even if the change is planned strategically with an implementation timeline. School closures happened overnight, and schools were forced to be reactive regarding the implementation of online learning. Many teachers would have still questioned their ability if courses were built in a proactive manner with quality feedback and professional development, but the “sink-or-swim” approach caused by the immediate response to the emerging pandemic would make almost anyone question his or her abilities. Another potential reason for the decrease in teaching confidence in the online environment may be directly related to a lack of student engagement. Schools are finding that some students do not engage in the online environment and complete work. As teacher confidence and perception of self-worth often correlates to student engagement and learning, a lack of engagement could lower teacher confidence. While engaging online instruction will help with this issue, teachers need to realize it is a team effort. It takes a village to educate a child, and heightened engagement takes a team working together. The blame does not rest on one individual. Educators are professionals with the highest regard for student learning who desire to meet the social and emotional needs of students. As such, teachers need to experience successes in the online environment, attend quality professional development regarding design and implementation of online instruction, and receive quality feedback from colleagues, coaches, administrators, parents, and students. Ways to Build Confidence Outside of the Classroom 6
When districts give teachers quality professional development experiences with research-based online instructional best practices and offer quality feedback measures, teacher confidence regarding online instruction will increase. Furthermore, supervisors must spend time in the trenches working with teachers as online content is built and modes of delivery are explored. When practices meet or exceed expectations, supervisors must ensure successes are celebrated. Furthermore, when things do not go as planned, the effort must be considered a learning experience with feedback being constructive. These suggested strategies to boost teacher confidence aim to increase teacher self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s self to perform at exemplary levels. When teachers believe in themselves, they will work harder, and instruction will be higher quality and more engaging. Research has shown a relationship between self-efficacy and student learning outcomes. Furthermore, belief in one’s abilities will lead to greater job satisfaction, which will impact the classroom culture and the learning environment. Given the pandemic and associated limited opportunities for in-person conferences, it is important that educators note that there are other high-quality forms of professional development. Often times, the best and most relevant professional development is found within the school or district. Having teachers share with one another what is working within their course is very valuable. Further, some districts employ technology coaches and curriculum specialists who can offer a wealth of knowledge. Teachers will often value this feedback from colleagues in similar situations who are facing the same challenges. Finally, confidence does not flourish in survival mode. Teachers should view building classes along the journey as an opportunity. These educators will have more opportunities to differentiate and change modes of delivery according to what works. To avoid getting overwhelmed, teachers can build classes in small chunks. Further, teachers should get outside, exercise, and step away from online classes for a while each day. By prioritizing wellness and supporting one another, teachers can move from survival to confidence. Online Instructional Strategies for Teachers to Try Synchronous learning opportunities give teachers the opportunity to heighten student engagement and more closely assimilate the traditional classroom environment. Further, an audience with feedback opportunities makes instruction more natural, which can build confidence. These sessions also provide a wonderful opportunity for colleagues to observe and reflect. Fostering productive class discussions is another strategy. Traditional discussion forums can easily become a mundane checklist task, but programs offer the possibility for video discussion posts and videoed replies. This strategy also adds authenticity. Finally, consider embedding short videos of yourself explaining or reading items within an assignment. Successful online teachers are clear and precise. This strategy adds clarity but also makes the class more personal and real. 7
Reflection: 1. Did you feel lack of confidence in your teaching skills in Online teaching? 2. Does it feel natural to you to teach On-line? 3. Would you like to expand your knowledge about digital learning skills? SDL resource #3: 7 Tips To Boost Self-Confidence In Online Training Self-directed Learning Resource #3 Activity title 7 Tips To Boost Self-Confidence In Online Training Duration 1 hour Why is this resource important? This Recommendation seeks to establish a shared understanding of competences which can support transitions and cooperation between different learning settings. It sets out good practices that could address the needs of educational staff which includes teachers, trainers, teacher educators, leaders of education and training institutes, among others. It also addresses institutions and organisations, including social partners and civil society organisations, guiding and supporting people in improving their competences from early age on throughout their lives. What will you learn from this resource? Definition of the key competences and the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to: ● Literacy competence; ● Multilingual competence; ● Mathematical competence and competence in science, technology, engineering; ● Digital competence; ● Personal, social and learning to learn competence; ● Citizenship competence; ● Entrepreneurship competence; ● Cultural awareness and expression competence. Sources & References The original text was found in: https://elearningindustry.com/tips-boost-self-confidence-online-training 8
How To Boost Self-Confidence In Online Training Self-confidence is one of the trickiest soft skills to master. It’s not an inherited trait, but one that your employees must cultivate and nurture over time. Building self-confidence and becoming self-assured allows your corporate learners to pursue their goals with fervor, knowing that they have what it takes to make it. Fortunately, there are ways that you can help your employees to grow their self-confidence by leaps and bounds through your online training program. 1. Use Branching Scenarios To Explore All Potential Outcomes The thing that makes most corporate learners doubt themselves and their abilities is fear of the unknown. They aren't sure where their decisions and actions will take them. Thus, there's always a possibility of achieving a negative outcome or facing real-world repercussions. Branching scenarios give them the rare opportunity to explore all of the potential outcomes, both good and bad, so that they can gain valuable experience. This also offers them the chance to gauge how they would react in real-life situations. If they can get a sneak peek of where each path leads them they can fine-tune their weaknesses and build their self-confidence in the process. To make sure that you don't leave out any important points and that your branching scenario has a coherent structure, you should first create an eLearning storyboard. 2. Encourage Employees To Test Their Limits One of the most effective ways to foster self-confidence is venturing out of the comfort zone. Employees who are able to test their mettle and overcome new challenges find out what they're truly made of. If they are stuck in a rut and playing it safe all the time, they simply won't have the chance to grow as individuals. Spark online discussions by posing thought-provoking questions that challenge their assumptions. You can also develop online training simulations and branching scenarios that explore new and exciting tasks. The goal is to get them thinking about who they are, what they are capable of, and how they can improve moving forward. Just keep in mind that there is a limit and you shouldn’t push them too far during the online training session. Gradually expand their boundaries and never test them to the point that they become overwhelmed or emotionally distressed. 3. Set Realistic Online Training Goals and Track Milestones Self-confidence in online training typically takes a nosedive when employees fail to reach their goals. They start second-guessing themselves and wonder if they have what it takes to achieve success. This is particularly true for corporate learners who already have shaky self-esteem. However, this can be avoided by setting realistic goals that feature more manageable milestones that corporate learners can track. Instead of trying to accomplish a more complex goal that takes a year to complete, corporate learners can tackle smaller tasks and sub-goals as they go along. This also helps improve their motivation and engagement, especially if you offer them personalized praise after every small victory. 9
4. Create A Positive Online Training Environment Speaking of personalized praise, a positive and supportive online training environment can work wonders for self-confidence. If corporate learners are facing a new problem or task, doubt and worry can wreak havoc on their confidence levels. You can counteract this by giving them the support tools and online training resources they need to be at their best. Integrating forums and FAQs into your online training program allows corporate learners to reach out to their peers and online instructors. Posting positive and informative links on social media pages can also keep the online training atmosphere upbeat. 5. Include Real-World Examples That Challenge Their Assumptions Every employee has their own set of beliefs, opinions, and assumptions. In some cases, these cognitions are holding them back and preventing them from gaining self-confidence. For example, they may have self-defeating beliefs that they are not good enough to get a promotion or they don't have the skills to land their dream job. However, inspirational real-world examples and stories can show them otherwise. They can challenge their current assumptions and make them question those negative beliefs. If they learn about another individual who overcame the odds and achieved their true potential, then they might be motivated to do the same. Alternatively, take advantage of the characters that your eLearning authoring tool features, to create a compelling story that your employees can relate to. 6. Develop A Mentorship Online Training Program Certain corporate learners may need some extra support to build their self-confidence. A mentorship online training program where they are paired with a self-confident and self-assured co-worker may be the ideal solution. Mentoring provides them an example to follow, so that they can see confidence in action. They also have the chance to acquire new skills, experiences, and talents that can improve their self-esteem. For best results, team them up with supervisors, managers, or more experienced co-workers who have similar interests or are in the same department. 7. Offer Corporate Learners Real-World Experience To Broaden Their Skills The more skills your corporate learners discover the more self-confidence they will have. Think of skills as the building blocks of confidence. Every ability they acquire and cultivate brings them one step closer to achieving their goals and becoming self-aware. They become more qualified over time, which allows them to take on bigger and better projects. Instead of sticking with the same work tasks, they can start branching out by taking on new work responsibilities. This not only benefits them by improving their productivity and efficiency, but also benefits your organization as a whole. When another employee is out sick for the day, your self-confident employees can step in and fill the gaps. It’s also important to bear in mind that corporate learners need a self-confidence boost from time to time. Ideally, you should offer them refresher online training activities, such as simulations and other interactive online training content, to gradually foster this essential 10
trait. Also, solicit eLearning feedback regularly to develop new and improved online training courses that meet their soft skill needs. Are you an eLearning professional looking to develop exceptional online training content? Request your free trial for Adobe’s stellar Captivate (2017 Release) authoring tool, and craft content beyond imagination. Also, don’t forget to ask for the Adobe Captivate Prime Demo to witness the experience of one of the best Learning Management Systems in the market. SDL resource #4: Self-efficacy and self-esteem in online learning environments of adult learners Self-directed Learning Resource #4 Activity title Self-efficacy and self-esteem in online learning environments of adult learners Duration 1 hour Why is this resource important? This study examines two psychological aspects of adult learners which are related to the learning processes associated with online learning. In particular, the relationship between specific self-efficacy (computer and internet self-efficacy and self-efficacy in terms of online learning environments) and self-esteem in the online learning of adult learners were investigated. The participants included 260 adult learners in Belgium who were following courses in Adult Education Centers and Employment Training Centers. Quantitative cross-sectional correlational research was conducted. The results show that there were no significant differences in terms of specific self-efficacy (computer and internet self-efficacy and self-efficacy in online learning environments) and with regard to self-esteem in the online learning of adult learners with regard to their gender, age, and educational levels. Among the influencing factors, the daily use of computers was found to have an effect on specific self-efficacy and self-esteem in such an environment. In addition, the findings indicate that specific self-efficacy (computer and internet self-efficacy and self-efficacy in online learning environments) was positively related to the self-esteem in online learning of adult learners. 11
What will you learn from this resource? Definition of the key competences and the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to: ● Literacy competence; ● Multilingual competence; ● Mathematical competence and competence in science, technology, engineering; ● Digital competence; ● Personal, social and learning to learn competence; ● Citizenship competence; ● Entrepreneurship competence; ● Cultural awareness and expression competence. Sources & References The original text was found in: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330741870_Self-efficacy_and _self-esteem_in_online_learning_environments_of_adult_learners SDL resource #5: Applying Best Practice Online Learning, Teaching, and Support to Intensive Online Environments: An Integrative Review Self-directed Learning Resource #5 Activity title Applying Best Practice Online Learning, Teaching, and Support to Intensive Online Environments: An Integrative Review Duration 4 hour Why is this resource important? The current paper explores known best practice principles for online instructors, students, and student support and considers how these might apply to intensive online environments. It is suggested that the accelerated nature of learning in intensive settings may place additional demands on students, instructors, and support mechanisms. Further research is imperative to determine predictors of success in online intensive learning environments. 12
What will you learn from this resource? Definition of the key competences and the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes related to: ● Literacy competence; ● Multilingual competence; ● Mathematical competence and competence in science, technology, engineering; ● Digital competence; ● Personal, social and learning to learn competence; ● Citizenship competence; ● Entrepreneurship competence; ● Cultural awareness and expression competence. Sources & References The original text was found in: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2017.00059/full Demand for flexible online offerings has continued to increase as prospective students seek to upskill, re-train, and undertake further study. Education institutions are moving to intensive modes of online study delivered in 6- to 8-week study periods which offer more frequent intake periods. Prior literature has established key success factors for non-intensive (12–13 weeks) online offerings; for teachers, skill development is critical to promote a flexible, responsive approach and maintain technological capabilities; for students, an ability to navigate the technology, interact with the learning environment in meaningful ways, and self-regulate learning is important, as the absence of physical infrastructure and opportunities for face-to-face interactions in online environments places a greater emphasis on alternate forms of communication and support. The current paper explores known best practice principles for online instructors, students, and student support and considers how these might apply to intensive online environments. It is suggested that the accelerated nature of learning in intensive settings may place additional demands on students, instructors, and support mechanisms. Further research is imperative to determine predictors of success in online intensive learning environments. The scope and availability of online offerings continues to expand globally. Demand for more intensive, short-term courses that provide opportunities for up-skilling has increased in the wake of massive open online courses (MOOCs), and this increased demand has in turn expanded the availability of online degree programs. As many as six million students in the USA were undertaking online education in 2015, with nearly five million of these students studying an undergraduate college (tertiary) qualification (Allen and Seaman, 2017). Similar trends have been noted in the Australian context. Recent scoping reports of the Australian Higher Education sector have highlighted continual, rapid growth in online enrollments, but also a degree of “blurring” of boundaries, due to the increased adoption of technologies to support the on-campus learning experience (Norton and Cherastidtham, 2014; Norton and Cakitaki, 2016). Changes to Australian funding policy have also enabled more public universities to invest in online offerings (Kemp and Norton, 2014), contributing to the continuing growth of this sector. 13
Online modes of study have been found to be equivalent to on-campus environments with respect to key outcomes such as student academic performance (Magagula and Ngwenya, 2004; McPhee and Söderström, 2012) and student satisfaction (Palmer, 2012). However, online offerings also pose some key differences to on-campus modes of study. Accessing course materials online allows unprecedented levels of flexibility and accessibility for students from around the world and overcomes geographical barriers that might prevent students accessing on-campus course offerings (Brown, 1997, 2011; Bates, 2005). The nature of the online education environment also means that course delivery needs to compensate for the lack of immediate physical infrastructure, relying more heavily on asynchronous methods of communication. There is also emerging evidence that online student cohorts differ from on-campus cohorts with respect to factors such as age and work or family commitments (Bailey et al., 2014; Johnson, 2015), which also speaks to the demand for more flexible, career-driven online offerings. The requirements of online students as a distinct demographic are another factor for consideration when planning and developing an online course. Furthermore, from a course development perspective, there is increasing understanding that developing online courses is more complex than merely translating written materials to an online format; it requires careful planning and maximization of available online technologies to cater for a variety of individual differences, student timetables and external commitments, and assessment modes (e.g., Rovai, 2003; Grant and Thornton, 2007; Rovai and Downey, 2010). Online learning does not only differ for students but also carries implications for instructors. Online instruction places varying demands on delivery and feedback methods and relies on different teacher knowledge and skills than face-to-face tuition (Alvarez et al., 2009). It is evident that a sensitive approach catering to both similarities and differences of both modes of study is warranted. With the abovementioned differences between on-campus and online education in mind, there is a duty for online education providers to continue to research and implement best practice for online modes of study. As fully online offerings continue to develop, new modes of delivery necessitate continual adjustment and evaluation to ensure that courses meet student needs. One such development is the move toward intensive mode courses. Intensive online degree courses (hereafter referred to as “intensive online courses”) are those in which students complete a degree entirely online, within an accelerated timeframe compared to the typical on-campus learning experience. Units of study are also delivered in shorter timeframes than the traditional (in an Australian context) 12- or 13-week semester, sometimes comprising 6 or 8 weeks of intensive learning, where a similar amount of material is covered compared with a semester structure. Students typically complete one unit at a time (as compared to four units concurrently for a traditional on-campus semester). Intensive online degree programs have built on the success of MOOCs to help upskill, and in some cases provide certified professional development, over a faster timeframe than typical on-campus university courses (Laurillard, 2016). MOOCs aside, the literature base on intensive online learning for degree programs in particular remains limited. With the potential for tertiary institutions to move more toward this mode of offering, which provides for increased student intake to meet growth demands, there is a need to more comprehensively evaluate the factors that contribute to student and instructor success in an intensive online learning environment. The present integrative review aims to bring together acknowledged best practices in online education, with a view to considering how these may 14
apply in an intensive online education environment. In particular, the elements that comprise a successful online experience for instructors and students, and the provision of student support and well-being services are considered. Online Teaching: Critical Factors As online modes of study continue to expand, there is increasing awareness of the need for competent online instructors. Developing institutional competence for online instruction requires a careful approach to training online instructors and a workload investment in staff training and development (Gregory and Lodge, 2015). While it is acknowledged that face-to-face teaching competencies such as knowledge of curricula and pedagogy do transfer to online contexts, it is also important to recognize the unique competencies required for online teaching success, and the role of institutions in setting instructor duties and responsibilities (Alvarez et al., 2009). Despite much prior research attention exploring the notion of online student readiness, online instructor readiness is now emerging as an equally important construct (Oomen-Early and Murphy, 2009). There is consensus in prior literature that effective online instruction requires a more flexible approach to skill development, due to the variety of roles and skills applied in online contexts (Bawane and Spector, 2009). Key environmental differences between online and on-campus learning environments also necessitate the development of different online teaching competencies. A sample of existing frameworks for teacher competencies in online education is summarized in Table 1 below. Table 1. Established teacher competency frameworks in online education. The ability to effectively communicate, manage technology, and deliver and assess content becomes especially important in intensive online environments, where there is less available time to acclimatize to new tools and operating environments. The monitoring of student progress, identification, and follow-up of issues or barriers are also critical duties for instructors to minimize the likelihood of student disengagement or withdrawal. Online learning systems employ a variety of online tools, systems, and software, which place new demands on the technical competence of instructors (Volery and Lord, 2000). Modes of communication also differ in online courses, with a greater reliance on asynchronous 15
communication methods (Hung et al., 2010). Live, “virtual” classrooms may also involve remote but instant methods of feedback between student and instructor, facilitated through live chat, video/webcam interactions, and small-group “break-out rooms.” The development of student rapport also differs in online contexts, and the nature of how rapport is initiated and maintained in online settings is not always easily comparable to face-to-face teaching. Naturally, assessment and feedback are also delivered in different ways via asynchronous methods when teaching online. Clear assessment practices, including communication of deadlines and assessment requirements, have been found to positively influence student engagement and course completion (Thistoll and Yates, 2016). Institutional and research-based efforts to characterize the competencies required for effective online instruction (e.g., Goodyear et al., 2001; Dennis et al., 2004; Darabi et al., 2006; International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction, http://ibstpi.org/, as cited in Beaudoin, 2015) suggest a degree of overlap in the conceptualization of the core teacher competencies required for effective online instruction. Some of the most important online teacher competencies drawn from the aforementioned studies include: • communication skills; • technological competence; • provision of informative feedback; • administrative skills; • responsiveness; • monitoring learning; • providing student support. Without adequate technological skills, instructors risk being unable to resolve technology-related problems during live class, which may impact student access to learning materials. Communication skills are also paramount (Easton, 2003). Effective instructor–student communication in online learning environments relies on timely and clear interactions through a variety of formats (Easton, 2003), including email, chat, live class questions, and assessment and feedback provision. In the absence of more immediate feedback methods available to on-campus instructors (e.g., face-to-face consultation), the assessment and feedback provided in online learning environments needs to be as clear and valuable as possible to promote student understanding (Darabi et al., 2006). Teacher support online involves effective monitoring of student progress, anticipation and resolution of key learning queries, and establishment and maintenance of rapport. Collectively, these kinds of competencies shape the effectiveness of online instructors and, in turn, the student experience. While these elements are well established as effective practice in online tuition, there exists significantly more pressure on these factors when content delivery, assessment, feedback, and communication occur within a condensed 6- to 8-week timeframe. In addition to student-related benefits, there is evidence that online instructor training can provide benefits to instructors themselves (Roblyer et al., 2009). These benefits occur both through expansion of direct skills for the instructor (i.e., professional development) to build confidence in online environments, and also through skills that are transferable to on-campus contexts (Roblyer et al., 2009), providing a wider institutional benefit. Roblyer et 16
al. (2009) note a kind of “reverse impact phenomenon” whereby teachers have experienced transferred skills improvements in face-to-face tuition by enhancing online teaching skills. While these authors based the outcomes around K-12 teachers, it is likely that the gains experienced by teachers (e.g., improved self-reflection on teaching and assessment methods; increased sensitivity toward student needs) would be similarly relevant to on-campus tertiary teachers. It is also important, however, to consider the environmental challenges posed by more intensive teaching timeframes. Instructors delivering content in shorter blocks of time have less time to reflect on, adapt and amend content before the next unit delivery, and thus unit re-design and content development can be more of a challenge in intensive online environments. Effective online instructors have a direct and important role in influencing the student experience, since instructors are often the “face” of an online course. Prior studies have emphasized instructor presence as among the most critical of factors related to student success online (Easton, 2003; Menchaca and Bekele, 2008; Kennette and Redd, 2015; Kim and Thayne, 2015). In the absence of the richness of interactions available to on-campus students, instructors become an even more important “ingredient” in helping to engage, retain, and graduate online students. Instructors also play a key role in motivating students throughout their online study (Bolliger and Martindale, 2004), since instructors may commonly be the only personalized point of contact provided to students at any one time. Instructor responsiveness and availability has been highlighted as a key predictor of online student satisfaction, in that lack of timely feedback or slow communication timeframes from instructors detract from student satisfaction online (Bolliger and Martindale, 2004). It is apparent that development of instructor training is a critical component of effective institutional preparation for wholly online courses, so that teachers can develop the range of skills required to teach online successfully. When considering the applicability of teacher competencies to an intensive online environment, it is reasonable to assume that the faster-paced nature of intensive learning may require greater competence with respect to certain instructor skills. The building of teacher competencies is a process that requires institutional planning and reflection when considering a move to more intensive online degree offerings, so that instructors are supported to flourish and students can benefit from quality instruction. The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006) (see Figure 1 below) provides a useful framework through which to view teacher competencies across multiple levels, and we can apply this model to consider teacher skills in intensive online environments. 17
Figure 1. The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model (Mishra and Koehler, 2006). Reproduced by permission of the publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org. The TPACK model promotes meaningful integration of technology, content knowledge, and pedagogy (Mishra and Koehler, 2006). Thus, an instructor’s ability to utilize technology as the basis for timely, responsive and clear feedback becomes even more critical in an intensive online environment, which can be further exacerbated by a lack of time to resolve technical issues or system access problems. Since technology is inherently embedded in content delivery and influential in approaches to teaching, technical competence must also be highlighted alongside content proficiency and pedagogical knowledge for instructors seeking to teach online, especially in intensive environments. It is apparent that the demands on all of these skill areas are likely to be heightened in an intensive delivery setting, and further research to understand the nature of any additional skill demands in intensive online environments would be valuable. Online Learning: Critical Factors Effective approaches to online education must also take account of baseline learner competencies and characteristics. Demographically, there are consistent differences between on-campus and online students (Bailey et al., 2014). For instance, more women than men appear to choose online modes of study (Price, 2006). Further, online learners are typically older than on-campus students, with many being “mature-age” students between the ages of 25 and 50 (Moore and Kearskey, 2005). This also presents a rich opportunity to enhance the learning environment through incorporation of some of the life experiences of 18
older learners online (Boston and Ice, 2011; O’Shea et al., 2015). Greenland and Moore (2014) also noted the potential for unexpected work commitments and/or busy work schedules to contribute to student intermissions and discontinuations. With regard to factors that influence student choice to study online, there is evidence that students opting to study online choose flexibility (i.e., convenience) over the perceived value of studying on-campus (Bolliger and Martindale, 2004). This flexibility is likely to be prioritized due to many online students being at a later life stage than younger on-campus students, whereby study must be accommodated around work and family commitments. However, the source of a requirement for flexibility also brings with it additional complications: factors such as age, gender, educational history, work obligations, and family commitments have all been found, in turn, to impact on completion rates in tertiary education settings (Tsay et al., 2000; Colorado and Eberle, 2010). Becoming an online learner places different demands on students. The fundamental quality and nature of the student experience shifts in online learning environments to a greater reliance on asynchronous modes of communication. Interactions also occur through a variety of methods, including learner-to-content, learner-to-instructor, and learner-to-learner (peer) interaction (Bolliger and Martindale, 2004). This necessitates a more proactive, self-directed approach on the part of students (Brown, 1997; Tsay et al., 2000; Khiat, 2015; Kırmızı, 2015). Self-regulated learning, where students use meta-cognitive skills to plan, implement, and reflect on their learning, have been increasingly associated with better academic achievements (Johnson, 2015; Khiat, 2015). Active engagement in academic materials, and with instructors and peers, has been emphasized as a core component of successful learning for students (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005). In one study, lack of social interaction was found to be the largest single barrier to student success online (Muilenburg and Berge, 2005). Meaningful connections with the institution are a key ingredient in student engagement (Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005). However, not all of the responsibility for effective engagement in online courses lies with the student. There is an institutional and faculty responsibility to create an inclusive, supportive structure where students can engage in social interactions and a sense of (online) community can be fostered, as has been apparent in research findings from Garrison and colleagues in applying and extending the Community of Inquiry model (e.g., Garrison et al., 2000; Aragon, 2003; Garrison and Cleveland-Innes, 2005; Garrison and Arbaugh, 2007) (see Figure 2 below). 19
Figure 2. Community of Inquiry model (Garrison et al., 2000). Reproduced with permission from the author. This sense of belonging is a key component that impacts student engagement and can act as a buffer against attrition (Oomen-Early and Murphy, 2009). As well as understanding and promoting the factors that can enhance belonging in an online community, faculty also have a responsibility to monitor student progress and address any early signs of difficulty or disengagement (Beaudoin, 2002; Dennen, 2008). A number of factors and situations can act as barriers to effect student engagement in online study, and online environments have long been known to face higher attrition rates than on-campus modes of study (Oomen-Early and Murphy, 2009). Many of these elements stem from the unique challenges and opportunities of online learning environments discussed above: • technical difficulties; • perceived isolation; • challenges balancing study; • work and family commitments; • confusion with content; • poor academic performance; or • lack of motivation. 20
Thus, understanding how best to gauge student readiness or preparedness for online study is a critical institutional responsibility. A range of recent studies have sought to characterize the main factors underlying readiness for online study (Vonderwell, 2004; Watkins et al., 2004; Pillay et al., 2007; Mercado, 2008; Dray et al., 2011; Farid, 2014; Wladis et al., 2016). Collectively, these studies emphasize the importance of technical skills, effective time management, individual differences (especially self-directed or self-regulated learning), financial means, and online self-efficacy as elements of readiness. A range of measures have also been developed and validated to assess student readiness for online learning (Kerr et al., 2006; Mercado, 2008; Hung et al., 2010; Dray et al., 2011), but there is scope in future research to consider the notion of student readiness more directly, as it relates to readiness for intensive online learning. In this mode, one could argue that there is an increased responsibility for faculty to screen students on commencement, to pre-empt and remedy potential barriers to a successful online study experience. Further, a more holistic approach to defining student readiness that encompasses key psychological, technological, situation, and learning-related contributors to readiness for intensive online study is recommended. Intensive online courses are likely to involve many of the same benefits and challenges for students as non-intensive courses. However, it is of note that the faster pace of the learning environment inherent in intensive courses means that both students and instructors have less time to address any key concerns, provide remedial support, or rectify any unintended technical or learning delays. Thus, the process of monitoring student progress and potential barriers is paramount in intensive online learning environments. Online Environment: Student Support and Well-Being Services Consideration of student support services becomes paramount in intensive online environments, where disruptions to technology or lack of support services can pose a significant barrier to student engagement in learning. Students completing courses wholly online are often limited in their access to the entire variety of support services a university offers, compared to their on-campus counterparts (Lee, 2010). The “four pillars” of supporting student success (see Figure 3 below) are often the intangibles that educators might take for granted when providing fully online courses. These pillars include online-friendly academic supports (Coonin et al., 2011; Huwiler, 2015), assistance with navigating technology (Lee, 2010), health and well-being facilities (Anderson, 2008), and a sense of belongingness, or community (Kumar and Heathcock, 2014). 21
Figure 3. The “four pillars” to supporting student success. Ensuring a positive and rewarding experience for online students, particularly those enrolled within intensive online courses, is contingent upon the institutional provider offering equitable support structures that are also appropriately translated into the online environment (Pullan, 2011). Being already prone to higher attrition rates, fully online students adopting study via intensive modes have increased expectations of their instructors, and the course learning environment more broadly, to provide the necessary infrastructure required to manage the increased workload. Therefore, tertiary providers choosing to deliver fully online courses, particularly intensive courses, need to ensure that these four pillars are prioritized equivalently to the translation of content into online platforms in order to maximize student success and reduce risks for attrition. The first pillar, and arguably the most crucial support an institution can offer to online students, revolves around online-friendly academic resources and ample opportunities for student–instructor interaction (Cannady, 2015). The success of completing a tertiary degree online strongly depends on the student’s ability to work autonomously and manage their time effectively (Wang et al., 2013). Beyond the personal qualities students must possess to succeed in an online course, as previously discussed, there is also a growing need for the institution offering the course to provide appropriate online-friendly academic scaffolding that supports their students throughout their learning (Lee and Choi, 2011). This includes, but is not limited to, detailed orientation services, and comprehensive library resources. Providing orientation services, especially for online students, is essential in order to adequately integrate incoming cohorts into their new online learning environment (Cho, 2012). Research, albeit limited, has consistently shown that orientation programs have improved student retention and academic performance both on- and off-campus (House and Kuchynka, 1997; Williford et al., 2001; Wilson, 2005). When looking specifically at online 22
courses, the factors that contribute to a successful orientation include comprehensive overviews of the course structure, recommended time commitments and expectation of students, familiarization with required instructional media and software, and guidance on the communication tools needed for student–staff interactions. Delivering this information in an online environment requires a substantial rethink of the way in which these programs are designed (Smyth and Lodge, 2012). Despite the challenges, providing these resources before a student commences their course has been shown to be critical for reducing early drop-out rates, increasing self-confidence, and enhancing the students’ sense of belonging (Tomei et al., 2009). However, many institutions that offer online courses do not make their orientation program mandatory before commencement, while some choose not to deliver an orientation program at all. In fact, one study has suggested up to 29% of institutions only offer on-campus orientation programs, despite also offering fully online courses (Cannady, 2015), perhaps due to the difficulty in developing effective online orientation. This rate is particularly concerning given there is strong evidence to show that comprehensive orientation programs are vital to supporting online student success. Comprehensive, course-specific resources created to improve students’ academic performance are also pivotal to student success, and are best delivered when strong collaborations between online instructional staff and the institution’s librarians are prioritized (Arnold et al., 2002; Kumar and Heathcock, 2014). Many university libraries provide an abundance of resources that assist new students transitioning into tertiary life (Arnold et al., 2002). However, if online course providers are unaware of the technological and/or literacy competencies of their students, these library resources may not be properly disseminated to incoming cohorts. This is problematic for fully online courses, particularly those offered in intensive modes where demands are greater, if the only exposure to their institution required is via their course’s learning management system (LMS). Targeted training programs and easy access to comprehensive resources available online is therefore vital to improving student success in intensive online learning environments; simply providing generic resources via a course’s LMS without proper instruction may not be sufficient to meet online student needs (Kumar and Heathcock, 2014). It is important that instructors gauge their student’s competencies before commencing the course so that any necessary gaps, particularly those easily fulfilled with existing library resources, can be addressed appropriately. The second pillar, yet one of the most immediate and unique hurdles for online students, is the need to provide adequate technical scaffolding in order to prepare students for learning in an online-only environment (Shea et al., 2005). Tertiary institutions offering fully online courses need to assure that all technology requirements are clearly communicated to students before commencing the course, and that ongoing technical support is provided to reduce delay in meeting course expectations. This is particularly important for intensive modes of online study where assessment deadlines leave little to no room for technical-based hurdles. The strong relationship between a student’s acceptance of technology and their perceived satisfaction with online courses is also important to consider, as this may pose additional hurdles to incoming cohorts unaccustomed to learning in an online environment (Lee, 2010). As emphasized earlier in this review, where students or instructors lack the required technical competence, this can pose a significant and sometimes insurmountable barrier, contributing to student discontinuation or 23
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